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祆教、拜火教，或瑣羅亞斯德教（Zoroastrianism）起源於公元前628年伊朗東部，是一位名叫 Zarathustra（查拉圖斯特拉）創立的教義。他的名字後來希臘文翻譯為 Zoroaster，固名瑣羅亞斯德教。
瑣羅亞斯德教相信二元論──兩個分開的實體，也就是兩個獨立的神性位格：善對惡，光明對黑暗。他們甚至認為有兩個同等的神祇：我們所住的世界不僅是邪惡的上帝所創造的，也屬他管轄；天堂則屬乎另一位上帝的領域，這位上帝至善至美，毫無瑕疵。其實古人會有這種想法是情有可原的。他們對宇宙穹蒼的觀察比我們現代人敏感多了。當他們在觀察閃爍星空，看到天體的運作是如此奧妙之同時，卻又看到周遭的邪惡、破碎與死亡，他們很自然的會聯想到這兩者之互不相容，認為既有美善，勢必有對立的醜惡。
有許多學者認為，不但諾斯底主義（ Gnosticism）和摩尼教（或作“明教” Manichaeism ) 的二元論都是瑣羅亞斯德教的延伸，而且它們的思想也深深地影響了基督教的觀點。事實上，約翰福音是在接近一世紀末時寫的。當時諾斯底哲學已經席捲了羅馬世界，並且已經嚴重侵入了教會。我們在多處新約聖經裡都看得到這種光明對比黑暗的隱喻，如約翰福音1：4-5「生命在他（註：耶穌）裏面；這生命就是人的光。光照在黑暗裡，黑暗卻不接受光。」或約翰福音3：19「光來到世間，世人因自己的行為是惡的，不愛光倒愛黑暗，定他們的罪就是在此。」就如瑣羅亞斯德教認為世界是一個毀壞惡濁的垃圾場，新約聖經也是用“黑暗”來形容這個世界。這兩個宗教都認為光明與黑暗互相排斥，不能併存。
其實諾斯底主義對新約聖經的影響不下於摩尼教對奧古斯丁（Augustine of Hippo 公元354-430）的影響。許多基督徒不願意談及摩尼教和奧古斯丁的關係，因為奧古斯丁在基督教界有極崇高的地位。其實奧古斯丁在信奉基督教之前，曾經有長達九年的時間是信奉摩尼教。雖然他後來離開了摩尼教，拋棄了“善惡具同等地位”的二元論，改信世界根源只有一個本體 ──上帝，的一元論，但是他有一些思想仍受到這個摩尼教殘留下來的影響。他認為除非是透過神的亮光，走在黑暗中的人類完全沒有行善的能力，更不可能超越自己在漆黑的困境。。
在奧古斯丁的［懺悔錄］一書中，他敘述了他如何受到羅馬書13：13-14的感動與啟發：「行事為人要端正，好像行在白晝。不可荒宴醉酒，不可好色邪蕩，不可爭競嫉妒；總要披戴主耶穌基督，不要為肉體安排，去放縱私慾。」奧古斯丁在看到使徒保羅寫的這一段經節之後，他形容彷彿有一道光滲入了他的心中，將他所有的疑慮和無助都消散了。他深深感受到上帝的能力能夠勝過人與世界的罪惡。
除了約翰的福音書喜歡強調光與黑暗之對比之外，保羅在這方面有特別多的闡述。他在哥林多後書11：13-14 指責撒但為“假使徒、詭詐工人、偽裝成基督的使徒”，還説說撒旦會“偽裝成天使”。在以弗所書6：12，他更明確的把善與惡的對立比擬做一場爭戰，一種權勢的爭鬥：「因我們並不是與屬血氣的爭戰 ，乃是與那些執政的、掌權的、管轄這幽暗世界的，以及天空屬靈氣的惡魔爭戰。」「神拯救了我們脫離黑暗的權勢，把我們遷入祂愛子的國裡。」（歌羅西書1：13）保羅更是用瞎眼得見光明，來相應他往大馬色的路上主對他所吩咐的話：「我差你到他們（註：百姓）那裡去，要叫他們的眼睛得開，從黑暗中歸向光明，從撒但權下歸向神... …」（使徒行傳26 ：18）。
保羅對奧古斯丁有極深的影響，而奧古斯丁對現今基督教的影響更是不言而喻。他是西方宗教改革的起源，是歷史上最重要的基督教思想家之一。除了鞏固了基督教教義之外，奧古斯丁還創造了一整套強大的神學體系。無論是對新教改革神學家馬丁路德（Martin Luther ：請參部落格：馬丁路德），加爾文主義（Calvinism 註一），或是三一論（Trinity 註二）問題的定位影響，都為中世紀和現代基督教的思想奠定了不可磨滅的基礎。但潛在的二元論也很自然的透過這些宗教神學家及聖經中的保羅傳流了下來，成為基督教思想裡面不可缺的一個元素。今天基督教會牧師教導的重點，經常擺在“如何打敗黑暗的勢力”，“如何逃脫肉體的捆綁，靠主得勝，進入光明世界”等... ...。更積極火熱的基督徒還會定期禁食向魔鬼宣告禱告，每天過著戰戰兢兢的屬靈生活，唯恐撒旦的權柄得勝掌權。
猶太人所相信的與基督教聖經所教導的完全不同。猶太教只信奉一位一體的神，不是基督教裡三位一體的神，也沒有二元論裏黑暗與光明勢力的搏鬥（參部落格：那看不見的）。 他們相信你在周遭所觀察、所遇到、所體驗到的力量，全都是來自一個源頭──Elohim（希伯來文אֱלֹהִים）就是“以羅欣”，中文聖經翻為“上帝”（註：創世記一章全章的「神」字都是「以羅欣」這個希伯來字）。「以色列啊，你要聽！耶和華我們神是獨一的主。 」（申命記 6：4）。這一位上帝是天地、陰間合一的耶和華，我們每個人都是奇妙可畏地被神塑造成有凝聚力的個體，所有的一切都被上帝所容納。也就是說，我們看到身邊發生所有的一切，無論是好或壞，都來自上帝。如以賽亞書45：7 所記載，神說「我造光，又造暗；我施平安，又降災禍；造作這一切的是我──耶和華。」還有「看哪，我今日將生與福，死與禍，陳明在你面前。」（申命記 30：15）
妥拉（註三; 參部落格：舊約聖經=希伯來聖經=塔納赫？）裏描述了一個非常精彩的異象，就是雅各的故事。雅各「夢見一個梯子立在地上，梯子的頭頂著天，有神的使者在梯子上，上去下來。」（創世紀28 ：12）這個連接天地的梯子對猶太人說，代表上帝跟世界是完全相連的。換言之，人可以把世界提升到上帝面前，就像這個天梯一樣（參Tovia Singer 拉比 Outreach Judaism "Pagan Dualism"）。這種理念跟基督教迴然不同。基督教相信人一定要遠離世俗與黑暗才能夠進入神光明的國度；猶太教則相信人能從世界取出世俗的東西，祝福它，然後將其提升到上帝面前。 也就是說，人不需要像基督教一樣，逃避黑暗，遠離物質的世界；反之，人可以將物質世界融入、並提升到精神世界。猶太人的標誌就是：合一、完整、平安就是美德。他們沒有二元論裡鬥打與對立的理念，也不會視人類心靈為齷齪黑暗之處；乃是單純地接受神所創造的一切──光與暗、平安與災難、生與福、死與禍。他們只有專一信奉唯一真神， 如申命記 6：4-5所說「以色列 啊， 你要聽 ！ 耶和華我們神是獨一的主。你要盡心、盡性、盡力愛耶和華你的神。」
註一：加爾文主義教義有五點：1. 人是完全的墮落 2. 上帝無條件的揀選人 3.上帝對人是有限的救贖 4. 上帝不可抗拒的恩典 5. 人一次得救就永遠得救。
註二：三位一體論述上帝是聖父、聖子與聖靈，三而一且一而三之本體。 但這三者分別各有其獨特性而不相等同。
Dualism
Zoroastrianism, also known as Mazdayasna, originated in the eastern part of Iran around 628 BCE and was founded by a prophet named Zarathustra. His name was later translated into Greek as Zoroaster, thus naming the religion Zoroastrianism.
Zoroastrianism believes in dualism—two separate entities or two distinct divine personalities: good versus evil, light against darkness. They even believe in two co-equal deities: the world we inhabit was not only created by an evil god but is also under his jurisdiction; heaven, on the other hand, belongs to another god who is purely good, beautiful, and flawless. Such beliefs in ancient times are understandable. The ancients were much more attuned to observing the celestial display than modern people. While they marveled at the mysteries of the twinkling stars and celestial movements, they also witnessed evil, brokenness, and death in their surroundings. Naturally, they drew connections between the incompatibilities of these phenomena, reasoning that if there is beauty and goodness, there must also be opposing ugliness and evil.
Many scholars believe that not only were the dualism of Gnosticism and Manichaeism (or "Religion of Light") extensions of Zoroastrianism, but their ideas also profoundly influenced Christian perspectives. In fact, the Gospel of John was written towards the end of the first century. By that time, Gnostic philosophy had already swept the Roman world and had significantly infiltrated the church. We can see metaphors of light contrasting with darkness in various parts of the New Testament. For instance, John 1:4-5 says, "In him (Jesus) was life, and that life was the light of all mankind. The light shines in the darkness, and the darkness has not overcome it." Also, John 3:19 says, "This is the verdict: Light has come into the world, but people loved darkness instead of light because their deeds were evil." Just as Zoroastrianism viewed the world as a corrupt and sullied dump, the New Testament also describes this world using the term "darkness." Both religions believe that light and darkness are mutually exclusive and cannot coexist.
The influence of Gnosticism on the New Testament is no less significant than the impact of Manichaeism on Augustine of Hippo (354-430 CE). Many Christians are reluctant to discuss the relationship between Manichaeism and Augustine, given Augustine's prominent status within Christian circles. In truth, before embracing Christianity, Augustine followed Manichaeism for nearly nine years. Though he eventually left Manichaeism and rejected its dualistic belief in the equal standing of good and evil, adopting the monotheistic belief in a single source of the world – God, some of his thoughts still has traces of his Manichaean past. He believed that without the illumination of God's light, humanity would be lost in darkness, entirely lacking the capacity to do good and cannot transcend their dire circumstances.
In Augustine's "Confessions," he detailed how he was deeply moved and inspired by Romans 13:13-14: "Let us behave decently, as in the daytime, not in carousing and drunkenness, not in sexual immorality and debauchery, not in dissension and jealousy. Instead, clothe yourselves with the Lord Jesus Christ, and do not think about how to gratify the desires of the flesh." After reading this passage written by Apostle Paul, Augustine described his experience as if a ray of light had penetrated his heart, dissipating all his doubts and helplessness. He felt profoundly that the power of God could overcome the sins of man and the world.
Beyond the Gospel of John, which frequently emphasizes the contrast between light and darkness, Paul offers more extensive explanations on this topic. In 2 Corinthians 11:13-14, he criticized Satan as "false apostles, deceitful workers, masquerading as apostles of Christ," further saying that Satan himself "masquerades as an angel of light." In Ephesians 6:12, he vividly portrays the conflict between good and evil as a battle, a struggle of powers: "For our struggle is not against flesh and blood, but against the rulers, against the authorities, against the powers of this dark world, and against the spiritual forces of evil in the heavenly realms." "For he has rescued us from the dominion of darkness and brought us into the kingdom of the Son he loves" (Colossians 1:13). Paul even uses the metaphor of his blindness turned to sight, mirroring the words the Lord spoke to him on his journey to Damascus: "I am sending you to them to open their eyes and turn them from darkness to light, and from the power of Satan to God..." (Acts 26:18).
Paul had a profound influence on Augustine, and Augustine's impact on contemporary Christianity is undeniable. He is considered the origin of the Western religious reformation and is one of the most important Christian thinkers in history. In addition to consolidating Christian doctrine, Augustine established a comprehensive theological system. His influence can be seen in Protestant Reformation theologians like Martin Luther (Please refer to my blog post: Martin Luther), in Calvinism (Note 1) and in discussions about the Trinity. But the underlying dualism has naturally trickled down through these religious theologians and the biblical Paul, becoming an indispensable element in Christian thought. Today, many church pastors emphasize "how to defeat the forces of darkness" and "how to escape the bondage of the flesh, triumph in the Lord, and enter the world of light " (Please refer to my blog post: On What is Unseen) More fervent Christians would periodically fast, declaring prayers against the devil, living a spiritually cautious life, fearful of Satan's authority prevailing.
What the Jews believe is entirely different from what the Christian Bible teaches. Judaism believes in a monotheistic God, not the Trinitarian God of Christianity, and does not entertain the dualistic struggle between light and darkness. They believe that every power one observes, encounters, or experiences all come from a single source—Elohim (in Hebrew אֱלֹהִים), translated as "God" in the Chinese Bible (Note: In Genesis, every reference to 'God' uses the Hebrew 'Elohim'). "Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one" (Deuteronomy 6:4). This single God is the Jehovah of the heavens and the earth. We are all wonderfully created by God as cohesive individuals, and everything is encompassed by God. That is, everything we witness around us, whether good or bad, comes from God. As Isaiah 45:7 records, God says, "I form the light and create darkness, I bring prosperity and create disaster; I, the Lord, do all these things." Also, "See, I set before you today life and prosperity, death and destruction" (Deuteronomy 30:15).
The Torah (Note 3; Please refer to my blog post: What is the Difference between the Old Testament, the Tanakh, and the Hebrew Bible?) describes a fascinating vision in the story of Jacob. Jacob "had a dream in which he saw a stairway resting on the earth, with its top reaching to heaven, and the angels of God were ascending and descending on it" (Genesis 28:12). This ladder connecting heaven and earth tells the Jews that God and the world are entirely interconnected. In essence, humans can elevate the world to God, just like this heavenly ladder. This concept contrasts with Christianity, which believes that one must distance oneself from the world of darkness to enter the kingdom of God's light. In Judaism, humans can take secular items from the world, bless them, and elevate them to God. That is, humans don't need to escape from darkness or avoid the material world, as in Christianity; instead, they can incorporate and elevate the material world to the spiritual realm. The Jewish ideal is unity, wholeness, and peace as virtues. They do not possess the dualistic notions of struggle and opposition, nor do they view the human soul as inherently dark; they simply accept all that God creates—light and darkness, peace and disaster, life and death. They solely worship the one true God, as stated in Deuteronomy 6:4-5, "Hear, O Israel: The Lord our God, the Lord is one. Love the Lord your God with all your heart and with all your soul and with all your strength."
Note 1: Calvinism is based on five points: 1. Total Depravity, 2. Unconditional Election, 3. Limited Atonement, 4. Irresistible Grace, 5. Perseverance of the Saints.
Note 2: The doctrine of the Trinity describes God as three persons—Father, Son, and Holy Spirit—each distinct yet coexisting in one essence.
Note 3: The Torah, also known as the Pentateuch or the "Five Books of Moses," consists of the first five books of the Old Testament: Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
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