To view the English translation, please scroll down to the bottom.
此篇內容大部分是從 https://www.bibleodyssey.org/ Amy-Jill Levine教授著“What is the Difference between the Old Testament, the Tanakh, and the Hebrew Bible?” 節錄、摘譯、編修。感謝Society of Biblical Literature授權翻譯此作品
有舊就有新，因此“舊約”一詞勢必意味著它必須有相應的“新約”。但因為“舊約”一詞對一些人來說，暗示猶太教的聖經—Tanakh （塔納赫），是舊的、過時的、不完整的。 因此，一些用苦良心的學者用“希伯來聖經” 一詞作為中立的稱呼代替品。 然而，這個中立的稱呼有時卻造成更多的混淆。其實基督教舊約聖經和猶太塔納赫，除了翻譯因素造成之差異以外，不管在標點符號、規範順序或強調重點方面都有許多不同。
1. 翻譯
耶穌是猶太人，因此當他在世時，他所使用的猶太聖經除了希伯來語之外，還有一部分是亞蘭文（Aramaic）。 然而，我們今天在新約裡面看到的舊約聖經引用文，大多都不是從塔納赫的希伯來原文直接翻的，通常是遵循七十士譯本（Septuagint）的希臘文翻譯過來的（希伯來聖經翻譯成希臘語的譯本，請參部落格：七十士譯本註）。 例如，以賽亞書 7：14（寫於公元前 700 年左右）描述了一位懷孕的年輕婦女。在塔納赫原文裡，這位懷孕的“年輕婦女”，希伯來文是用“阿瑪”（עַלְמָה，發音為'almah）一詞。 但在馬太福音 1：23，希臘文卻將 “阿瑪” 翻譯為“帕德諾斯” （παρθένος ，發音為parthenos）。“帕德諾斯”在希臘文的意思是“處女”（如帕德諾神廟）。英文聖經就依照希臘文把它翻作“virgin”（處女），中文聖經則翻為“童女”。“年輕婦女”與 “處女” 之定義天壤之別，自不在話下。
2. 焦點
另一個例子是馬太福音5：5與詩篇 37：11之比較。馬太福音：「“溫柔”的人有福了！因為他們必承受地土」是用希臘文來回應詩篇的「但謙卑人必承受地土，以豐盛的平安為樂」。雖然這兩個經節在中文聖經看起來大致相同，但在馬太福音 5：5 的希臘文中，焦點擺在“溫柔的人”；在詩篇裡，它所強調的則是以色列人擁有的這塊“地土”（或做“土地”希伯來文是הָאָרֶץ，發音為arets）
3. 文字與標點符號
還有另一個造成猶太塔納赫跟基督教舊約聖經極大的差異，就是它的字母。因為希伯來文只有輔音（和作“子音”），而且沒有標點符號，所以閱讀者可以插入不同的詞組而形成不同的詮釋。 在以賽亞書 40：3中的希伯來文，預言流亡的巴比倫人將返回以色列。其實以賽亞書的希伯來原文之直譯應該是「有“聲音”呼喊：在曠野預備主的路。」這裡並沒有指定此“聲音”之來源是什麼樣的聲音、是誰的聲音，以賽亞並未對此聲音作進一步的闡述說明；但在基督教聖經新約，馬可福音的作者將這個聲音詮釋為“人”的聲音，所以就翻譯成：「在曠野有“人”聲喊著說：預備主的道，修直他的路。」不僅如此，新約作者更進一步地將這個聲音之來源指向施洗約翰。新約如此一詮釋，就跟希伯來文原來要表達的大不相同。以賽亞書這段經文，若依照塔納赫希伯來文的上下文來判斷，它是在預言以色列人被放逐的時期終於要告一個段落了。這個沒有被指定的“神聖”聲音就是在宣布、告訴猶太人，你們即將從巴比倫返回耶路撒冷，要把這一條道路清理好，以為結束流亡生活做歸回的準備，不是在預言施洗約翰為彌賽亞鋪路。
4. 排列順序
除了希伯來文與希臘文因字母輔音、標點符號及翻譯之間的差異因素之外，這兩本聖經目錄排列順序之差異，也產生了兩者更多不同的解釋。 譬如：基督教舊約聖經將路得記夾在士師記和撒母耳記中間。 如果按年代時間順序安排，路得記擺在這裡是順理成章的。因為路得是大衛王的曾祖母，並且大衛在撒母耳記上對此有做介紹，所以這樣編排較有連貫性； 但塔納赫將卻將路得記放在「文集」（Kethuvim 註一）的區塊中，也就是說，路得記跟雅歌、耶利米哀歌、傳道書和以斯帖記擺在一起，它跟先知書撒母耳記完全無任何銜接點。 猶太教徒在一些猶太節日中，都會完整的閱讀塔納赫的「文集」捲軸。 因此，路得記在猶太教正典中的地位比在基督教更為突顯、更被看重。
5. 講述主題
關於聖經書卷的順序排列，基督教的聖經讀者都知道，整本舊約聖經是以小先知書—瑪拉基書做為結束。先知瑪拉基預言，以利亞將會在“耶和華大而可畏之日未到以前”來到以色列民當中（瑪拉基書 4：5-6 ）。這為新約提供了序幕，由施洗約翰扮演以利亞的角色，為耶穌之來臨鋪路。所以繼瑪拉基書，尾隨新約福音第一本書的開幕，似乎相當合乎情理； 但塔納赫的讀者都知道，在猶太教聖經裡， 先知書集（Nevi'im 註二）不是排在他們整本書的尾端，而是排在書的中間。也就是說瑪拉基書之後，接著是上述之「文集」── 詩篇、箴言、約伯記等（註四）。 事實上，有些基督徒可能會非常驚訝，猶太希伯來聖經的最後一本書竟然是歷代志下。歷代志下最後一章最後一節記載「波斯王古列如此說：耶和華—天上的神已將天下萬國賜給我，又囑咐我在猶大的耶路撒冷為他建造殿宇。你們中間凡作他子民的，可以上去，願耶和華—他的神與他同在。」（歷代志下36：23）這是波斯王下令流亡巴比倫的猶太人回家的故事， 當然與彌賽亞之再來無關。“你們可以上去”，就是“回家吧！”的意思。從以上書本如何收尾的論點可清楚看到，這兩部正典講述了兩個不同的故事：基督教舊約和新約關注的是末世的救贖； 猶太人聖經談的是“回到祖國”、歸根到聖城耶路撒冷。
6. 重點/版本
最後，猶太人和基督徒閱讀聖經的重點不同。 猶太教專注於妥拉（註三）。每年或每三年作為一輪，猶太教徒在猶太會堂都會把全部的妥拉朗誦完一次， 每次閱讀妥拉都伴隨閱讀先知書；而當基督教念舊約時，則多半以先知書為重點，“舊約”經常會伴隨著“新約”來閱讀。 加上，基督教會使用許多不同的翻譯版本（註：目前中文聖經約有10種版本，英文將近50種版本六）， 尤其現今許多教會偏向喜歡用較白話的聖經閱讀； 但在猶太會堂裡，一併使用希伯來原文來吟唱、閱讀。
結論
如果我們用心花心血去注意猶太塔納赫和基督教舊約聖經之間的關聯與差異，可幫助我們學習、尊重每個傳統的完整性，並理解為什麼我們對經文有如此不同的解釋。
註一：「文集」或稱「聖卷」(希伯來文：כְּתוּבִים ，英文拼寫：Ketuvim)，就是「詩歌智慧書」。「文集」是指舊約聖經裡「律法書」、「歷史書」、「先知書」之外的幾卷書。詳細表格請參部落格：基督教舊約聖經與猶太教聖經比較一覽表。
註二：「先知書」（希伯來文：נְבִיאִים，英文拼寫：Nevi’im)，紀錄歷史和先知的事蹟，共八卷書，包括「前先知書」四卷，「後先知書」四卷
詳細塔納赫之目錄表，請參部落格：基督教舊約聖經與猶太教聖經比較一覽表。
註三：妥拉（Torah），又稱Pentateuch「摩西五經」，就是舊約聖經的頭五本書──創世記、出埃及記、利未記、民數記及申命記
What is the Difference between the Old Testament, the Tanakh, and the Hebrew Bible?
This article is primarily comprised of excerpts, condensed sections, and edited content from Dr. Amy-Jill Levine's article titled "What Are the Distinctions Between the Old Testament, the Tanakh, and the Hebrew Bible?" found on bibleodyssey.org. Thanks to the Society of Biblical Literature for authorizing the usage and translation of this work.
The existence of the Old Testament implies the presence of a corresponding New Testament. However, for some, the term "Old Testament" suggests that the Jewish Bible, known as the Tanakh, is old, outdated, or incomplete. As a result, some conscientious scholars prefer to use the term "Hebrew Bible" as a neutral alternative. Nevertheless, this neutral term can sometimes lead to more confusion. In reality, there are many differences between the Christian Old Testament and the Jewish Tanakh, aside from translation variations, including differences in punctuation, canonical order, and points of emphasis.
1.Translation:
Jesus was a Jew, so during his lifetime, he used the Jewish Scriptures, which, in addition to Hebrew, also contained portions in Aramaic. However, most of the Old Testament quotes we find in the New Testament today are not direct translations from the Hebrew original texts of the Tanakh. They often follow the Greek translation of the Septuagint (Note: the translation of the Hebrew Bible into Greek, please refer to my blog post: Septuagint ).
For example, in Isaiah 7:14 (written around 700 BCE), the original Tanakh text refers to the pregnant young woman in Hebrew as "almah" (עַלְמָה). But in Matthew 1:23, the Greek text translates "almah" as "parthenos" (παρθένος) which means "virgin", as the Parthenon temple. In English Bibles, it is also translated as "virgin," while in Chinese Bibles, it is translated as “童女”(young girl). The difference in definition between "young woman" and "virgin" is significant, to say the least.
2. Emphasis
Another example is evident when comparing Matthew 5:5 and Psalm 37:1. In Matthew, it reads, "Blessed are the meek, for they shall inherit the earth," while in Psalm 37:1, it states, "But the meek will inherit the land and enjoy peace and prosperity." While these two verses may seem somewhat similar in both Chinese and English Bibles, in the Greek text of Matthew 5:5, the emphasis is on "the meek," whereas in Psalm 37, the emphasis lies on “the land.” (in Hebrew, הָאָרֶץ, pronounced arets) referring to land of Israelit.
3. Text and punctuation
Another significant difference between the Jewish Tanakh and the Christian Old Testament is the text itself and the absence of punctuation in the Hebrew language. Because Hebrew contains only consonants and lacks punctuation marks, readers can insert different phrases, leading to different interpretations.
In Isaiah 40:3 in the Hebrew text, it prophesies the return of the exiled Babylonians to Israel. The literal translation of the Hebrew text of Isaiah should be "A voice cries: In the wilderness prepare the way of the Lord." Here, there is no specific identification of the source of this voice, what kind of voice it is, or whom the voice belongs to, and Isaiah does not provide further explanation. However, in the Christian New Testament, the author of the Gospel of Mark interprets this voice as the voice of “someone” and translates it as: "A voice of one calling in the wilderness, 'Prepare the way for the Lord.'" Furthermore, the New Testament author goes on to identify the source of this voice as John the Baptist. This interpretation in the New Testament differs significantly from what the original Hebrew text of Isaiah intended to convey. In the context of the Hebrew text of Isaiah and considering the surrounding passages in the Tanakh, this unspecified divine voice is announcing to the Jewish people that their period of exile is coming to an end. It is telling them that they will soon return from Babylon to Jerusalem, and they should prepare the way for this return by clearing a path, not prophesying the preparation of the way for the Messiah, as interpreted in the New Testament.
4. Canonical order
In addition to the differences in the Hebrew and Greek texts, consonants, punctuation, and translation factors, the canonical order in these two Scriptures has also led to more distinct interpretations. For instance, in the Christian Old Testament, the Book of Ruth is placed between the Book of Judges and the Books of Samuel. This arrangement makes sense chronologically because Ruth is the great-grandmother of King David, who is introduced in the Books of Samuel. Thus, this order ensures logical consistency. However, the Tanakh places the Book of Ruth in the section called the "Writings" (or Kethuvim, see Note 1). In other words, the Book of Ruth is grouped with books like Song of Solomon, Lamentations, Ecclesiastes, and Esther, with no direct connection to the Books of the Prophets or Samuel. Jews often read the entire "Writings" scroll of the Tanakh during certain Jewish festivals. Therefore, the status of the Book of Ruth within the Jewish canon is more prominent and highly regarded than in Christianity.
5. Narrative Topic
Regarding the canonical order of the biblical books, Christian readers are aware that the Old Testament concludes with the minor prophets, ending with the Book of Malachi. The prophet Malachi predicts that Elijah will come to the people of Israel "before the great and dreadful day of the Lord" (Malachi 4:5-6). This serves as a prologue for the New Testament, where John the Baptist plays the role of Elijah, preparing the way for the coming of Jesus. So, following the Book of Malachi with the opening of the first book of the New Testament gospel seems logical from a Christian perspective. However, readers of the Tanakh in Judaism know that in the Jewish Bible, the Prophets (or Nevi'im; see Note 2 ) are not placed at the end of the entire book but in the middle. After the Book of Malachi, it is followed by what was mentioned earlier, "Writings" (Kethuvim) - including Psalms, Proverbs, Job, and others ( Please refer to my blog post: Comparison of the Books & Orders between Christian Old Testament and Tenakh). In fact, some Christians might be surprised to learn that the last book in the Hebrew Bible is 2 Chronicles. The final verse of 2 Chronicles 36:23 records, “This is what Cyrus king of Persia says: ‘The Lord, the God of heaven, has given me all the kingdoms of the earth and he has appointed me to build a temple for him at Jerusalem in Judah. Any of his people among you may go up, and may the Lord their God be with them.’” This is the story of King Cyrus of Persia allowing the exiled Jews in Babylon to return home - a narrative entirely unrelated to the coming of the Messiah. "May go up" means "return home." From how these books conclude, it is clear that these two canons tell two different stories: the Christian Old and New Testaments focus on eschatological salvation, while the Jewish Bible tells the story of returning to the homeland, the holy city of Jerusalem.
6. Emphasis and Edition
Finally, Jews and Christians have different focuses when reading the Bible. Judaism focuses on the Torah (Note 3). Every year or every three years in a cycle, Jewish congregations recite the entire Torah, accompanied by readings from the Prophets. In contrast, when Christians read the Old Testament, the emphasis is often on the Prophets, and the Old Testament is frequently read alongside the New Testament. Additionally, in the Christian church, various translation versions are used (Note: There are approximately 10 versions of the Chinese Bible available, while in English, there are nearly 50 different versions). Especially nowadays, many churches prefer reading the Bible in more colloquial language. However, in Jewish synagogues, Hebrew original texts are used for chanting and reading together.
Conclusion
If we put in the effort to carefully consider the connections and differences between the Jewish Tanakh and the Christian Old Testament, it can help us learn, respect the integrity of each tradition, and understand why we have such different interpretations of the scriptures.
Note1: "The Writings," also known as the "Ketuvim" (Hebrew: כְּתוּבִים), refer to the "Poetry and Wisdom Books." The "Writings" encompass several books in the Old Testament that fall outside of the categories of the "Law," "History," and "Prophets." For a detailed table. Please refer to my blog post: Comparison of the Books & Orders between Christian Old Testament and Tenakh.
Note 2. The "Prophets" (Hebrew: נְבִיאִים, English transliteration: Nevi’im) record historical events and the deeds of prophets. It consists of a total of eight books, including four "Former Prophets" and for "Latter Prophets." For a detailed table. Please refer to my blog post: Comparison of the Books & Orders between Christian Old Testament and Tenakh
Note 3: Torah, also known as the Pentateuch, comprises the first five books of the Old Testament Bible – Genesis, Exodus, Leviticus, Numbers, and Deuteronomy.
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