地獄 Hell

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西方人提到地獄，往往會聯想到但丁的《神曲·地獄篇》。在這部經典巨作中，地獄被描繪成一個層層分明的受苦世界。整個地獄共分為九個圈層，每一層會根據不同的罪行輕重來施以相應的懲罰。外圈的懲罰最輕，如情慾和暴飲暴食這類的小罪，而最內圈則是懲罰最為嚴重的罪行，就是背叛之罪。而撒旦就被永遠冰封在這最深層裡，象徵著牠違背神旨意的最終後果，並展現出牠罪惡之極致與不可逃脫的命運。

而在東方信仰中，佛教所說的十八層地獄是依據人所造的惡業來懲罰罪的地方。每一層地獄對也是應著不同的罪行，去承受與他們過去的所作所為息息相關的懲罰。根據這罪人前世的行為，他們會被分派到特定的地獄層，接受如火燒、冰凍、攀爬刀山或被炸油鍋等懲罰。這些刑罰不僅是對其惡行的報應，同時也具有淨化靈魂的作用，讓亡者的靈魂在受罰後，有機會重新投胎轉世或獲得解脫。

幾個世紀以來，地獄經常被描繪為一個充滿無盡痛苦、煎熬與絕望的深淵夢魘。它被視為一個因罪而永受無期折磨的地方。在藝術、音樂、文學以及許多宗教中（包括基督教），都能見到其對地獄這種景象的描述。其實許多人皈依基督教，其中一大原因正是對地獄的恐懼。這種恐懼源於人類天性中想避免永恆懲罰的本能反應，同時也反映出人對永恆生命與救贖的渴望。

「地獄」的希臘原文是 γέεννα（Gehenna），這個詞來自希伯來語 גֵּיא בֶן-הִנֹּם（Gēʾî Ben-Hinnōm），即「新嫩子谷」。它位於耶路撒冷城外，曾經是個焚燒垃圾與執行刑罰的地方，象徵最終審判與刑罰。

以下是一些新約聖經記載關於地獄的經節。

地獄是一個充滿永恆火焰的地方：

「隨後他要對左邊的人說：你們這被詛咒的人，離開我，進入那為魔鬼和他的使者預備的永火裡去。」（馬太福音 25:41）

「與其有兩隻手下地獄，進入不滅的火，不如缺了一隻手進入生命。」（馬可福音 9:43）

是一個與神分離的地方：

「他們要受永遠的毀滅，與主的面和他榮耀的大能隔絕。」（帖撒羅尼迦後書 1:9）

是一個充滿悔恨與痛苦的地方：

「並把他們扔進火爐裡，在那裡將有哀哭和切齒。」（馬太福音 13:42）

是一個黑暗和無底深淵：

「然後王對僕人說：把他捆起來，扔在外面的黑暗裡，在那裡將有哀哭和切齒。」（馬太福音 22:13）

具有毁滅性：

「不要怕那殺身體卻不能殺靈魂的人；倒要怕那能把靈魂和身體都毀在地獄中的那一位。」（馬太福音 10:28）

是一個永受懲罰的地方：

「他們要到永刑裡去；義人卻要到永生裡去。」（馬太福音 25:46）

「那迷惑他們的魔鬼被扔在硫磺火湖裡，就是那獸和假先知所在的地方；他們必晝夜受痛苦，直到永永遠遠。」（啟示錄 20:10）

基督徒相信，罪使人類走向死亡（羅馬書 6:23）。然而，「沒有義人，連一個也沒有；沒有明白的，沒有尋求神的……因為世人都犯了罪，虧缺了神的榮耀」（羅馬書 3:10-11, 23）。因此，地獄被視為一個永恆、真實且令人恐懼的地方，它也成為所有犯罪的人都註定要去的歸宿。而逃避這惡運的唯一方法，就是要相信耶穌基督。正如耶穌在約翰福音14:6 中所說：「我就是道路、真理、生命；若不藉著我，沒有人能到父那裡去。」

猶太教對地獄的觀點

基督教對天堂與地獄的教義相當明確，但猶太教對於「上界」（天堂或神的領域）和「下界」（人間或來世）的觀念，相對之下則顯得多樣且複雜多了，因為猶太教較重視解釋的多元性，而非單一的絕對答案。與基督教著重傳遞「耶穌為避免地獄永罰的唯一道路」之觀念相比，「地獄」在猶太教中並不是核心概念。事實上，在希伯來聖經（舊約）或塔木德（口傳律法）中，其實很少提到地獄。

這是因為猶太教更注重學習與遵行神的命令（mitzvah），並透過這些誡命來體會其美好、深度與神聖，而非一心專注於死後會發生什麼事。猶太教不像基督教那樣有明確的「條件性」～即若不遵守特定的指引，便會被定罪下地獄。

根據「猶太教之猶太人」機構（Jews for Judaism）創辦人克拉維茲拉比（Rabbi Bentzion Kravitz）的說法：

「值得注意的是， “誡命”（מצוה～發音 “mitzvah”）一詞在語源上與亞蘭語的 “連結”（צוותא，發音 “tzavta”） 有關聯。透過實踐這些具體的誡命，有限的人能夠與無限的神建立連結的關係，並因此在來世獲得一席之地。這也是為什麼許多猶太人更注重善行與行動，而不談論天堂和地獄。我們認為遵行神的誡命本身就是人生最終的目的，而不是一種為了獲得將來回報的工具。誡命讓我們與神連結，同時也讓這個世界變得更有道德、更精緻、更具有靈性的意義。」

他進一步解釋：「我們不希望『天堂的應許』或對『永恆懲罰』的恐懼，污染我們的靈性服侍，使其帶有其他動機。對地獄的恐懼或對天堂與救贖的期望，可能成為一種強大的誘惑，讓人為了某種目的而選擇相信某個觀念。正如出埃及記 23:8所說：『不可受賄賂，因為賄賂能使明智的人眼目昏迷，扭曲義人的話語。』」

他引用猶太經典有聲望的賢哲們的話，強調：「我們的智慧者如此說：『不要像那些為了賞賜而服侍主人的僕人；而要像那些不為賞賜而服侍主人的僕人。並讓對神的敬畏常在你心中。』」（摘自《先賢言》1:3，《先賢言》（註：Pirkei Avot，פִּרְקֵי אָבוֹת）是一部彙集了公元前300年至公元200年間猶太賢哲言論的文獻）。

由於猶太人對地獄看法的多樣化，而希伯來聖經（即舊約）中最接近地獄的描述是「陰間」（Sheol），拉比們對此地的解釋也各不相同。以下是正統猶太教拉比、講師及宗教權威 伊扎克·布里托維茨（Yitzchok Brietowit）對地獄的看法：

「我們確實相信來世，因為我們相信人的本質並非其肉體。肉體只是一件外衣，真正的本質是靈魂。在猶太思想中，有關於動物靈魂的概念，這是一種維持身體機能的生命力量，但更重要的是神聖的靈魂，它是真正來自上帝的一部分。這是每一位猶太人內在的神性，而這種神性不會隨著死亡而消失，正如神不會死去一樣，因為它參與了神的永恆性。

因此，當人死後，他們的真正本質——靈魂，會與全能的神連結，並體驗到無法形容的喜悅，那是一種充滿愛的神聖結合。這就是所謂的來世、伊甸園和光明。然而，為了要配得上與神的這種連結，人的靈魂需要被淨化與潔淨。我們所犯的罪會在靈魂上留下污點與缺陷，使我們無法達到與神永恆且充滿愛的結合。

這就是地獄概念的由來。所謂的「地獄」，並不是一種肉體上的痛苦，因為靈魂本身並非物質。當我們談到「地獄之火」，實際上是使用隱喻和比喻來傳達靈性的意涵。地獄的本質在於，靈魂感受到自己一生中所帶來的痛苦有多麼巨大，這種感覺被形容為「燃燒的羞恥」。當一個人終於面對自己的過錯，並感受到懊悔與悔恨，靈魂便得以被淨化，並與神重新連結，在永恆的完美中合一。」

基於以上拉比之講法，猶太教將地獄視為一個靈性淨化的過程，為了最終能與神更加親近，而非永恆的肉體折磨——這與基督教對地獄的理解有著明顯的差異。

無論我們將地獄視為一個永恆的懲罰之地，還是短暫的靈性淨化過程，選擇的看法無疑會深刻影響到我們如何生活在這世上。如果一個人因害怕地獄而活，他的行為舉止可能更多是受到懲罰恐懼的驅使，而不是來自內在原則的指引。這樣的心態很可能帶來焦慮、內疚，甚至對自己和他人的過度批判。然而，以正面的角度來說，對地獄的恐懼也有可能會促進某種程度上的自律與生活秩序。

相對地，不相信地獄的人，可能更傾向以個人倫理與社會價值來指引自己的行為舉止，並更注重對他人的即時責任，而非依賴來世的後果。這種觀點可能會激勵人們專注於自我提升，並在當下過著有意義的生活。然而，以負面的角度來說，沒有地獄恐懼的人也可能導致對道德紀律的放鬆，甚至讓人更容易屈服於有害的衝動。此外，在面對世界的不公時，若缺乏對最終審判的信仰，可能會產生無助或挫敗的情緒。

無論人們如何看待地獄，最重要的是要理解到，專注於恐懼而非愛，可能會阻礙我們靈性的成長。畢竟，神真正希望我們優先追求的，不正是慈悲、恩典與希望嗎？

Hell

In the Western world, people often associate hell with Dante’s epic poem, Inferno, where Hell is depicted as a vast, multi-layered realm of suffering. Dante’s hell is divided into nine circles, each circle represents different sins with punishments fitting to the severity of those sins. The outer circles deal with “lighter” sins like lust and gluttony, while the deepest circles are for the most serious sins like treachery. In these deepest circles, Satan is trapped in ice as the ultimate betrayer, symbolizing the consequences of defying God.

Similarly, in the Eastern world, the eighteen levels of hell in Buddhism, are places where souls with bad karma are punished. Each level of hell also corresponds to different sins and the punishments fit the wrongdoings. Sinners, based on what they did in their past lives, are sent to specific levels where they are burned, frozen, forced to climb mountains of knives, or boiled in oil. These punishments are a way of paying for their bad karma. The purpose of this hell is not only punishment but also to offer a chance for the soul to be purified and potentially reincarnated or liberated after enduring their penalties.

For centuries, hell has been depicted as a nightmarish abyss of relentless agony, excruciating torment and despair. It is a place where damned souls are eternally consumed by suffering — it is like a life sentence for their sins. We can find these depictions in art, music, literature and many religions including Christianity. People become Christians for a variety of reasons, and fear of hell is definitely one of the motivating factors because it resonates with human’s natural emotional response of wanting to avoid eternal punishment while embracing the promise of eternal life.

The Greek word for “hell” is γέεννα (Gehenna), which originates from the Hebrew גֵּיא בֶן-הִנֹּם (Gēʾî Ben-Hinnōm), meaning “Valley of the Son of Hinnom.” It is located outside the city of Jerusalem and was once a place where garbage was burned and punishments were carried out, symbolizing final judgment and punishment.

Here are some New Testament verses that mention hell:

Hell is a place of eternal fire: “Then he will say to those on his left, ‘Depart from me, you cursed, into the eternal fire prepared for the devil and his angels.” ( Matthew 25:41) “It is better for you to enter life maimed than with two hands to go into hell, where the fire never goes out.” (Mark 9:43)

It is a place where you are separated from God: “They will be punished with everlasting destruction and shut out from the presence of the Lord and from the glory of his might.” (2 Thessalonians 1:9)

It is a place of weeping and regret: “They will throw them into the blazing furnace, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.” (Matthew 13:42) ; “But the subjects of the kingdom will be thrown outside, into the darkness, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.” (Matthew 8:12)

It is a place of darkness and bottomless pit: “Then the king told the attendants, ‘Tie him hand and foot, and throw him outside, into the darkness, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.’ (Matthew 22:13) ;“And throw that worthless servant outside, into the darkness, where there will be weeping and gnashing of teeth.” (Matthew 25:30); “The fifth angel sounded his trumpet, and I saw a star that had fallen from the sky to the earth. The star was given the key to the shaft of the Abyss.” ( Revelation 9:1)

 It is a place called Gehenna: “Do not be afraid of those who kill the body but cannot kill the soul. Rather, be afraid of the One who can destroy both soul and body in Genenna.” (Matthew 10:28); “And if your eye causes you to stumble, pluck it out. It is better for you to enter the kingdom of God with one eye than to have two eyes and be thrown into hell.” (Mark 9:47)”

It is the place of eternal punishment: “Then they will go away to eternal punishment, but the righteous to eternal life.” (Matthew 25:46) ; “And the devil, who deceived them, was thrown into the lake of burning sulfur, where the beast and the false prophet had been thrown. They will be tormented day and night for ever and ever.“ (Revelation 20:10).

Christians hold the belief that sin brings death to humanity. It says in Romans 6:23, “no one is righteous, no, not one”; "no one understands; no one seeks for God…for all have sinned and fall short of the glory of God” (Romans 3:10-11, 23). Therefore, hell is considered an eternal, physical, and horrifying place where those who have sinned are destined to go. The only way to escape this fate is through faith in Jesus Christ. As Jesus said in John 14:6, “I am the way and the truth and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me.”

While Christian teaching is quite clear-cut about heaven and hell, Jewish teachings on the “world above” (heaven or the divine realm) and the “world below” (often interpreted as earthly life or the afterlife) are varied and complex, as Judaism generally values interpretative diversity rather than a single, definitive answer. While Christianity focuses on spreading the message that Jesus is the only path to avoid eternal condemnation of hell, in contrast, the idea of hell is not central to Judaism. In fact, hell is hardly mentioned in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) or the Talmud (Oral Torah). This is because Judaism focuses on the importance of studying and following mitzvah (God’s commandments) and connecting with the  beauty, depth, and divinity of these commandments rather than what happens to us after death. It is not like Christian teaching, where there are strings attached—if one doesn’t follow the specific instructions, they are doomed to hell.

According to Rabbi Bentzion Kravitz, the founder of Jews for Judaism:

 “It is significant that the word מצוה–mitzvah (commandments) is etymologically related to the Aramaic word צוותא–tzavta, which means ‘connection.’ It is through the physical commandments that finite man is able to connect to the infinite God and thereby acquire a portion in the world to come. This is why many Jews focus on good deeds and action and don’t talk about heaven and hell. We see the fulfillment of God's commandments as an end in themselves. Rather than simply a self-gratifying tool to gain reward, the commandments connect us to God and simultaneously transform the world into a more moral, refined, and spiritual dwelling. We also do not want the ‘promise of heaven’ or fear of ‘eternal damnation to taint our spiritual service with an ulterior motive. The fear of hell or the promise of heaven and salvation could be a powerful bribe to believe a certain way, as it says, “Do not accept a bribe, for a bribe blinds the righteous” (Exodus 23:8). Our sages put it this way, “Do not be as servants who serve their master for the sake of a reward. Rather, be as servants who serve their master not for the sake of a reward. And let the fear of Heaven be upon you” ~Chapters of the Forefathers 1:3” (note: Chapters of the Forefathers (or פִּרְקֵי אָבוֹת “Pirkei Avot” is a document that consists of sayings of Jewish sages who lived from 300 BCE to 200 CE.）

Since there are diverse ways Jews view hell, and the closest description of hell in the Hebrew Bible (Old Testament) is “Sheol”, the rabinnic interpretation of this place varies. The following is what Yitzchok Brietowit, an orthodox rabbi, lecturer and rabbinic authority says about hell:  

“We definitely believe in the afterlife because we believe that the essence of a person is not their body. The body is simply a garment for their true essence, which is the soul. In Jewish thought, there is the concept of the animal soul, which is the biological entity that keeps the body functioning, but most importantly, there is the divine soul, which is really a portion of God. It is actually divinity within every single Jewish person, and that divinity does not die just as God does not die because it partakes of the divine.

Therefore, after death, a person’s true essence—the soul—is connected to the Almighty and experiences the indescribable pleasure of a loving union with God. This is referred to as the World to Come, the Garden of Eden, and the light. However, in order to merit that connection to God, a person’s soul needs to be cleansed and purified. All of the different sins that we commit create blemishes and imperfections, which make us incapable of achieving that loving eternal communion with God.

This is where the concept of hell comes in. The term ‘hell’ is used, but it is not a physical suffering because the soul is not a physical body. When we talk about the fires of hell, we are using metaphors and examples to represent spiritual ideas. Essentially, hell means that a person’s soul feels the enormity of the pain they caused during their lifetime. This is described as the burning humiliation of shame. When a person finally comes to grips with all that they’ve done wrong and feels regret and remorse, they are purified and able to be reunited with God in eternal perfection.“

From what the rabbi started above, we can see that Judaism views hell not as a place of eternal physical torment, but rather as a process of spiritual purification, allowing the soul to attain closeness to God—a perspective that differs significantly from the Christian understanding of hell.

Whether one views hell as a place of eternal punishment or a temporary purification, it is undeniable that such beliefs can significantly influence how we live our lives on earth. Living in constant fear of hell might cause our actions to be motivated more by the fear of punishment than by internal principles. This mindset can lead to anxiety, guilt, and even judgment of oneself and others. On the positive side, fear of hell may encourage discipline and order in life.

On the contrary, not believing in hell might shift our actions to be guided by personal ethics and societal values, creating a sense of immediate accountability to others rather than relying on consequences in the afterlife. This perspective can inspire us to focus on self-improvement and living a meaningful life in the present. On the negative side, it may also result in a more lenient approach to moral discipline, with some feeling less constrained from acting on harmful impulses. Additionally, it could lead to despair or frustration when confronting injustice in the world, given the absence of a belief in ultimate accountability for wrongdoers.

Whichever perspective one chooses to embrace regarding the concept of hell, it’s important to remember that focusing on fear rather than love can stifle our spiritual growth. After all, isn’t it compassion, grace, and hope that God desires for us to prioritize?